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The Last Impression: 26 Death Masks (Some Well Known, Some Not)


Ten plaster death masks with closed eyes in a grid. Varied expressions and textures, set against a black and white backdrop.

In the quiet hours following death, long before photography could capture a likeness, artisans turned to wax and plaster to preserve the human face. The resulting object—a death mask—was not merely a tribute but an exact impression, a final imprint of cheekbones, furrows, and expression. Each mask fixed a moment of stillness in time, suspended between reverence and the macabre.

Stone bust of a serene person with closed eyes, against a dark background. The sculpture captures fine facial details, conveying calm.
Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) died at the age of 50. He had been suffering from rheumatic mitral valve disease, which caused frequent throat infections, possibly leading to his demise. At the time of his death, he was a renowned and in-demand conductor, having been booked for 90 concerts during the 1910-1911 season. 

Unlike painted portraits, which smoothed away flaws or projected ideals, death masks offered something raw and unfiltered. Some were made in honour, others for science, and many simply to remember. Over centuries, they have recorded the faces of poets, kings, revolutionaries, and unknown souls pulled from rivers, surviving as both intimate relics and historical records.

White plaster mask of a serene face with eyes closed, lips slightly smiling, lit against a black background, creating a calm, reflective mood.
Death mask of Heinrich Himmler in the Imperial War Museum in London. (Public Domain). Heinrich Himmler was a SS Nazi Chief and one of the main architects of the Holocaust. He was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and set up and controlled the Nazi concentration camps. Himmler was eventually captured by the Soviets and died by suicide after he bit down on a potassium cyanide pill.

From Ancestral Rites to Renaissance Monuments

The practice stretches far back into antiquity. In ancient Rome, patrician families kept imagines maiorum—wax masks of deceased ancestors—displayed in the atrium and worn by actors during funerary processions. These weren’t just keepsakes; they served as political statements, binding the present to a heroic lineage.



By the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, masks began to shape how the dead were commemorated more broadly. Effigies on royal tombs were sometimes modelled on death masks to ensure accuracy. In 14th-century England, for instance, the funeral effigy of Edward III may have been informed by such a mask, even though the actual practice of casting faces at death was not yet widespread.


One of the earliest clearly documented Renaissance examples is the mask of Florentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who died in 1446. It was used as a model for his funerary sculpture in the church of Santa Maria del Fiore—marking the intersection of art, memory, and the body.

Bronze face sculpture wrapped in blue and white striped fabric on a lace background. The mood is serene and contemplative.
Frida Kahlo. Her death mask can be seen at the Casa Azul in Mexico City, the museum dedicated to Kahlo and her art.

Enlightenment Realism: From Art to Anthropology

The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a marked rise in the production of death masks, especially in Enlightenment Europe where realism and empiricism were in vogue. These masks weren’t just about mourning—they served educational and scientific purposes.


The Austrian sculptor Josef Danhauser took both a life and death mask of Ludwig van Beethoven. The death mask, made shortly after the composer’s death in 1827, remains a stark contrast to the earlier cast: the face is more drawn, the mouth partially open, the features reflective of suffering. These twin masks now form a visual chronicle of his final years.


The 1832 death mask of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the German poet and polymath, was similarly influential. It was not only a personal keepsake for admirers but used by sculptors to produce accurate busts and medallions long after his death.



In Britain, the mask of William Blake, who died in 1827, has survived in several plaster copies. The original was reputedly made by his friend and patron John Linnell. Blake’s features—calm, fine-boned, and slightly turned downward—convey a surprising serenity, considering his often turbulent inner visions.

A monochrome plaster mask with closed eyes and a serene expression on a dark background, creating a calm and reflective mood.
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727). Newton, who discovered the laws of gravity and invented calculus, died on March 31, 1727, at the age of 84. The mask was originally made so that Flemish sculptor John Michael Rysbrack could use it as a model for the bust of Newton at Westminster Abbey. 

L’Inconnue de la Seine: The Unknown Woman Immortalised

Perhaps the most haunting and romanticised of all death masks is that of L’Inconnue de la Seine—the Unknown Woman of the Seine. In the late 19th century, the body of a young woman was pulled from the river in Paris. There were no signs of violence, and her identity was never discovered. However, a pathologist at the Paris Morgue was so taken by her enigmatic smile that he ordered a cast of her face.



The mask soon became an object of fascination. Copies circulated through artistic circles in Paris, eventually adorning the walls of writers and bohemians. Rainer Maria Rilke, Man Ray, and Vladimir Nabokov all referenced her in their work. In the 20th century, her image was repurposed as the face of CPR mannequin Resusci Anne, making her quite possibly the most kissed face in history.

A white sculpted bust of an older man with closed eyes, set against a dark background. The expression is serene and contemplative.
Robert E Lee. The Confederate general — who surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, marking the beginning of the end of the American Civil War — died on Oct. 12, 1870, at age 63. Lee commissioned the death mask himself. It was later used as the basis for a memorial sculpture at Lee University.

Criminality and Science: Phrenology and the Masked Dead

As pseudoscientific theories like phrenology took hold in the 19th century, death masks became tools for criminologists and anthropologists. The shape of a skull, it was believed, might reveal clues about a person’s intelligence, temperament, or moral capacity.



This led to the systematic casting of convicted criminals after execution. In France, Italy, and Scotland, these were often retained in police archives or medical museums. The infamous Edinburgh murderers William Burke and William Hare, who sold corpses to anatomists in the 1820s, were part of this trend. After Burke’s execution in 1829, a death mask was taken and is still displayed at the University of Edinburgh’s Anatomical Museum, alongside his actual skeleton.


The practice blurred the lines between justice and curiosity. While some viewed these casts as scientific specimens, others found them morbidly fascinating collectibles.

A person holds a white sculpted head, flanked by cases with dark preserved hands. The setting is dimly lit, conveying a mysterious mood.
William Burke. The mass murderer — who, along with his partner William Hare, killed 16 Scottish people and sold their bodies to a doctor who dissected the bodies during his anatomy lectures — was hanged on Jan. 28, 1829, at age 37. In a macabre twist, Burke's corpse was publicly dissected in the anatomy theatre of the University of Edinburgh. His death mask, and a pocketbook made of his skin are on display at Scotland's Surgeon's Hall Museum.

Masks of Revolution and Power

Death masks weren’t limited to the sentimental or the criminal. They were also made of political figures—some revered, others reviled.


Maximilien Robespierre, architect of the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror, allegedly had a death mask taken by Madame Tussaud—though it’s more likely that the waxwork was reconstructed from memory and sketches. However, genuine masks were certainly made of Voltaire and Jean-Paul Marat, and are now part of collections in France and Germany.


Vladimir Lenin’s death in 1924 was marked by the creation of an official mask by Soviet sculptors, used as the basis for his embalmed tomb display. Though no longer on wide display, early casts survive and were central to the process of creating his mausoleum figure.

A plaster death mask rests on a white cloth pillow, set against a dark background. The surface appears smooth and serene in neutral tones.
Michael Collins. The Irish revolutionary, who was so pivotal to his people's fight for independence, was assassinated on Aug. 22, 1922, at the age of 31. Albert Power, the artist tasked with making the death mask, felt Collins had "fine ears" and decided to include them in the mask, which was not always done.

The Death Mask Today

By the 20th century, the death mask had largely faded from mainstream use. Photography, forensic imaging, and changing attitudes to death rendered them more historical curiosities than contemporary rituals. But some late examples still stand out.


James Joyce’s mask was taken in 1941 by the sculptor Paul Speck after Joyce died in Zurich. It is quietly expressive, showing a slumped mouth and furrowed brow. Similarly, Franz Liszt’s 1886 mask remains one of the most detailed we have of any composer.


These final impressions have since become sources of fascination not only for biographers and sculptors but for the public, who see in them a glimpse of the real—the ultimate documentary portrait.

A bronze-colored face mask on a black background, showing intricate textures and a serene expression.
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). The original wax mask, of which this is a plaster copy, was probably taken as a model for Cromwell's funeral effigy. He had died on 3 September 1658, and his corpse had been quietly buried in Westminster Abbey on 10 November.

The Enduring Power of the Mask

Today, you can see death masks in places like the Musée de l’Homme in Paris, the National Portrait Gallery in London, and even in the collections of medical universities and private libraries. Each one offers a curious intimacy: a physical connection to a life no longer present.



They are not stylised. They do not flatter. They bear no expressions of character, no artistic flourish, no dramatic lighting. And yet, because of that very honesty, they feel hauntingly close—more so, sometimes, than even the most skillful painting or photograph.


What lingers is not merely the image of death, but the impression of a life, pressed into plaster, and held in place for centuries.

Sculpted stone head with detailed features on display against a dark blue background. No visible text. The mood is solemn and contemplative.
Nikola Tesla. The famed inventor who revolutionised our understanding of electricity died of a coronary thrombosis on Jan. 7, 1943, at the age of 86. Tesla died in poverty, but Hugo Gernsback, a long-time friend, commissioned a sculptor to create a death mask. It's presently displayed in the Nikola Tesla Museum in Serbia.
A detailed plaster mask of a face with closed eyes on a gray background, exhibiting peaceful expression and subtle texture variations.
Ishi was the last survivor of the Native American Yahi people, who were massacred by the US government and private citizens during the California Genocide. He lived among anthropologists at the University of Berkeley before dying of tuberculosis on March 25, 1916, at around 56 years of age. 
White plaster casts of a man's head, hand, and foot are displayed in a glass case. The setting appears to be a museum exhibition.
Vladimir Lenin The Russian revolutionary leader died of a stroke at age 53 on Jan. 21, 1924. Along with the cast of his face, there are also casts of his hands. 



Close-up of a plaster cast of a man's face with closed eyes, furrowed brow, and expressionless features. Textured surface, dark background.
Martin Luther (1483-1546).

A sculpted head and arm rest on black fabric inside a glass display case. The setting is simple with a reflective background.
Anna Pavlova. The Russian prima ballerina was the star of the Imperial Russian Ballet and toured the world performing. She died of pleurisy on Jan. 23, 1931, at age 49. In addition to a death mask, a cast of the dancer's leg was also made at the time of her death.


A monochrome plaster death mask with closed eyes and a solemn expression. The texture appears worn, set against a plain, dark background.
Ludwig van Beethoven taken from his face shortly after his death on March 26, 1827. The mask was created by Josef Danhauser

White plaster face mask of a man with closed eyes and a mustache on display. Reflections and people visible in the glass background.
Joseph Stalin

A plaster sculpted face with closed eyes and a textured surface in dim lighting. The background is dark, creating a solemn mood.
Frederick Douglass. The author, abolitionist, and civil rights leader died of a heart attack on Feb. 20, 1895, after attended a meeting of the National Council of Women. He was 77. Sculptor Ulric Dunbar came to Douglass's Washington, DC home the day after his death and created this death mask.

Bronze-toned death mask of a calm face, eyes closed in peaceful expression. Smooth texture, simple background. No visible text.
John Keats. Arguably Britain's best-known poet of the Romantic era, Keats was only 25 when he died of tuberculosis on Feb. 23, 1821. Where the Wild Things Are author Maurice Sendak once owned Keats's death mask and was said to take it from its box and stroke its forehead occasionally.


Plaster cast of a man's face in profile, eyes closed, on a dark cloth. Soft lighting, neutral background, serene expression.
James Joyce. The famed Irishman, author of the literary masterpiece Ulysses, died at the age of 58 on Jan. 13, 1941, following surgery for an ulcer. Sculptor Paul Speck made three original masks of Joyce on Jan. 13. The one above is now located at the United States Library of Congress. 


Sculpted head of an elderly man in black and white, highlighting textured hair and a serene expression in shadowed lighting.
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847). The cause of his early death has long been a mystery. Contemporary doctors diagnosed a “nervous stroke,” which researchers today describe as an “aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage.” Interestingly, his sister Fanny had shown similar symptoms before her death at age 42, and his grandfather Moses and both his parents had died from similar strokes. According to experts, there appears to have been some kind of genetic predisposition.


Marble death mask of a serene face with closed eyes on a dark background. Visible texture and faint engraved text at the bottom.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821). Because Napoleon died on the remote island of St. Helena, there was a mad rush to create the materials needed to cast his face. This delay meant the mask wasn't made until a day and a half after his death, and as a result, decomposition had already set in. This explains the sunken eyes, hallowed cheeks, and relaxed look.
A plaster cast of a serene face with closed eyes, marked by small bumps, set against a dark background, creating a solemn mood.
Franz Liszt (1811-1886).

A detailed plaster death mask set against a dark background, displaying a serene and solemn expression with closed eyes and subtle textures.
William Blake (1757 - 1827). While it’s known he died of an illness, it’s unknown exactly what that illness was. Blake himself exclaimed that he suffered from "that sickness to which there is no name." Leading up to his demise, Blake’s life was in a downward spiral. His later works received highly negative critiques, and Blake himself was once referred to as "an unfortunate lunatic." Perhaps as a vision of his own death mask to come, in 1819 Blake began a series of sketches called "visionary heads." He claimed that the historical figures he drew appeared before him and modeled for him.
A white plaster cast of a man's face with closed eyes and mustache, set against a dark background, conveying a serene and solemn mood.
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897).



White plaster death mask of an elderly person; eyes closed, subtle smile on face. Black background enhances texture details.
Cosima Wagner (1837-1930).
Men make a plaster cast on a man lying down. To the right, a white death mask on a black background. Serious atmosphere. Black and white.
The cast of John Dillinger being made
A person focuses on a historical wax death mask set against a blurred background. The mask is beige with intricate facial details.
Mary Queen of Scots. After a life of political turmoil, bouncing around Europe, and collecting a long list of enemies, Mary sought asylum from her cousin Queen Elizabeth I. Instead she became a prisoner for 19 years in the country she almost ruled. When it came time for her execution, she asked if she could get her affairs in order and was told, “No, no, Madam you must die, you must die! Be ready between seven and eight in the morning. It cannot be delayed a moment beyond that time.” When they placed her head on the block, it took the executioner three tries before the beheading was complete. He then held Mary’s head high and exclaimed “God save Queen Elizabeth! May all the enemies of the true Evangel thus perish!"








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