Drag in the Lecture Halls: Estonian Frat Boys and the Cross-Dressing Stage Tradition, 1870–1910

Between 1870 and 1910, a rather curious and creative tradition emerged at the University of Tartu in what is now Estonia. Known as “pledge theatres”, these performances were put on in the late autumn months by all-male student organisations, often tied to fraternities or Baltic-German student corporations (Studentenverbindungen). Far from being amateur dramatics done in haste, these productions served a serious purpose: they were rites of passage for new pledges—aspiring members of the society.

To be initiated, pledges had to stage full theatrical performances, acting out entire plays. These weren’t small sketches or short improvisations; they were fully realised productions. The cast, composed solely of male students, would often rehearse for weeks. But one feature set these plays apart: the enthusiastic and deliberate portrayal of female characters by male actors.

More Than a Gag: Cross-Dressing with Conviction

The pledge theatres were steeped in theatrical tradition but also in aesthetic precision. When a male student took on a female role, it was not merely for comedy—though humour was often part of it—it was an opportunity to demonstrate both dedication and flair. The participants took their transformation seriously. Makeup was applied with care. Wigs were styled. Clothing was selected and sometimes tailored to evoke a convincing feminine appearance.

In an age when photography was becoming an increasingly common way to record and commemorate events, these student thespians also visited local photography studios to have formal portraits taken in costume. These weren’t informal snaps—these were staged studio photographs that captured the artistry and spectacle of the performance. The resulting cartes de visite—small photo cards mounted on heavy paper—were then exchanged among students, used as mementos, or sold as souvenirs to audience members. In effect, drag performances at Tartu were documented, cherished, and commercialised.

Why All-Male Performances? A Broader Theatrical Legacy

The practice of men playing women on stage wasn’t unique to Estonia, of course. In fact, it had deep historical precedent. In many cultures, theatre had long been a male-dominated space, either due to social norms, religious prohibitions, or formal rules banning women from public performance.

In Ancient Greek theatre, for example, all actors were men, including those playing female characters. These actors wore elaborate masks and costumes to embody women and performed in outdoor amphitheatres to large audiences. This male-only rule wasn’t challenged until centuries later.

English Renaissance theatre, which flourished in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, continued the tradition. William Shakespeare’s plays were originally performed by all-male companies. Young boys, whose voices hadn’t yet broken, were typically cast as women. A famous example is the original portrayal of Juliet in Romeo and Juliet—a part now strongly associated with femininity, but first brought to life by a teenage boy in tights.

In Japan, the classical art form of kabuki also maintained gendered theatrical roles. Although it began with female performers in the early 1600s, women were banned by 1629 due to concerns about morality and public behaviour. This gave rise to the onnagata—male actors who specialised in playing female roles, often spending years perfecting their voice, walk, posture, and gestures to become stylised feminine figures. Even today, onnagata remain a respected discipline within kabuki.

Similarly, in traditional Chinese opera, particularly in the Peking and Cantonese styles, male actors historically played all roles. This created a niche for dan (female role) specialists. However, by the late 19th century, cultural shifts saw the emergence of women’s troupes, particularly in the yue or Shaoxing opera styles in southern China. These troupes were often entirely female, with women playing both male and female characters in response to changing social expectations and audience demand.

Gender Reversal Takes the Western Stage

Back in Europe and the United States, the 19th century saw a shift in the representation of gender on stage, particularly with the rise of the “breeches role”—a woman performing as a man. In Victorian England, performers like Vesta Tilley became household names by dressing in military uniforms and masculine suits, singing patriotic songs and wittily mocking male behaviour.

Across the Atlantic, Anne Hindle took things a step further. Performing primarily in American vaudeville, Hindle regularly shaved to encourage facial hair and affected a deep voice to pass convincingly as a man. Her performances unsettled as much as they entertained, blurring the line between illusion and identity. Critics of the time often couldn’t decide whether to admire her skill or condemn her act as socially dangerous. Yet her popularity revealed an audience curiosity about gender fluidity and theatrical transformation—an interest that mirrored the appeal of student drag shows in Tartu.

From Music Halls to Moving Pictures: A Comic Legacy

As theatre evolved, so too did its connection with gender play. In the early 20th century, many of the English music hall traditions migrated to the burgeoning American film industry. Comedians Charlie Chaplin and Stan Laurel, both of whom began in British music halls, occasionally performed in drag—often in parody but with strong echoes of earlier stage traditions. In 1910, they travelled to the US with Fred Karno’s comedy troupe, bringing with them an entire toolbox of gendered physical comedy.

Even Wallace Beery, later known for his gruff roles in talkies, appeared in silent films portraying a Swedish woman in exaggerated costume. This was a time when dressing as the opposite gender was mostly deployed for laughs, and that comic tradition carried through to acts like The Three Stooges, with Curly Howard donning drag in several short films. These performances weren’t refined or realistic, but they reinforced the enduring appeal of transformation and theatrical gender play.

Censorship and the Serious Side of Drag

However, as cinema grew more influential, it also came under tighter control. In the United States, the Hays Code (enforced from 1934 to 1968) imposed strict moral guidelines on Hollywood productions, severely limiting how sexuality and gender non-conformity could be depicted. Cross-dressing, if shown, had to be clearly comedic and morally neutral.

Only after the decline of the Hays Code did more complex representations begin to emerge. Films like Some Like It Hot (1959) and Tootsie (1982) continued the comedic tradition, but the late 20th century also saw more dramatic portrayals, such as The Crying Game (1992) or Boys Don’t Cry (1999), which engaged with transgender identity and societal prejudice.

Tartu’s Theatrical Legacy in a Global Context

Seen in this light, the drag performances at Tartu University were neither peripheral nor insignificant. They represented a fusion of cultural practice, theatrical tradition, and youthful experimentation. These student productions, though informal by professional standards, were deeply rooted in a history of gender performance that spans continents and centuries.

Importantly, these weren’t acts of rebellion so much as rites of belonging. To don a dress and a wig was to take one’s place in a ritualised tradition—one that tested creativity, theatrical skill, and willingness to participate fully in student life. The surviving photographs—men in corsets and curls, posing earnestly for the camera—speak volumes about how seriously they took the spectacle.

Today, drag is often framed within the language of identity politics and performance art. But its older forms, such as those practised in the pledge theatres of Tartu, offer a different narrative—one rooted in fraternity, initiation, and the joy of inhabiting another character, if only for an evening.

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Sources:

• Tartu University student theatre archives

• Lisa Sigel, International Exposure: Perspectives on Modern European Pornography, 1800–2000

• Laurence Senelick, The Changing Room: Sex, Drag and Theatre

• Alexander C. Cook (ed.), Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History (for Yue opera context)

• Michael R. Gorman, The Amazing Transformations of Anne Hindle

• Kabuki and Chinese opera performance studies (various academic journal articles)

• The Hays Code and film censorship history resources (Library of Congress)